What Is Plant-Based Fuel? Definition, Types, Uses, and Impact

Plant-based fuel is energy made from recently grown plant material—such as crops, residues, and woody biomass—converted into liquids or gases like ethanol, biodiesel, renewable diesel, sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), and biomethane to replace petroleum in vehicles, aircraft, ships, heating, and power. In practice, these fuels are commonly called biofuels. They can cut life‑cycle greenhouse gas emissions compared with fossil fuels, but the real benefits depend on the feedstock, farming practices, and production technology.

What “Plant-Based Fuel” Means—and What It Doesn’t

Plant-based fuels are derived from biomass that was recently alive: sugar and starch crops (corn, sugarcane), oil crops (soy, rapeseed, camelina), agricultural residues (corn stover, wheat straw), woody biomass (forest residues), and dedicated energy crops (switchgrass, miscanthus). Because the carbon in these fuels originally came from atmospheric CO2 absorbed by plants, their life-cycle emissions can be lower than fossil fuels, assuming sustainable land use and efficient processing.

Unlike synthetic e-fuels made from captured CO2 and green hydrogen, plant-based fuels start with biological carbon. In popular usage, biofuels also include fuels made from waste cooking oil and, sometimes, animal fats. Strictly speaking, “plant-based” excludes animal-derived inputs, but the technologies and end uses are similar.

Common Types of Plant-Based Fuels

The following list outlines the most widely used plant-based fuels, how they’re made, where they’re used, and the typical emission benefits reported in policy programs and peer‑reviewed studies.

• Bioethanol: An alcohol fuel produced by fermenting sugars from crops like corn and sugarcane, or from cellulosic biomass after pretreatment. It’s blended with gasoline as E10 or E15 in many markets, with E85 for flex‑fuel vehicles. Sugarcane ethanol often achieves 60–90% lower life‑cycle emissions than gasoline; modern corn ethanol varies widely (roughly 20–50% lower), while cellulosic ethanol can exceed 70% reductions.
• Biodiesel (FAME): Made by transesterifying plant oils (soy, rapeseed) or used cooking oil into fatty acid methyl esters. Common blends are B5 and B20 in diesel engines; B100 is used in some fleets and warm climates. Typical life‑cycle cuts range from about 50–80%, with higher savings for waste‑oil routes; cold‑flow properties and NOx emissions need management.
• Renewable diesel (HVO): Produced by hydrotreating plant oils or waste lipids into a drop‑in diesel chemically similar to petroleum diesel. It can be used at any blend up to 100% without engine modifications. Life‑cycle reductions are often in the 50–80% range when using waste oils; it performs well in cold weather and meets diesel specifications.
• Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) from plant pathways: Today’s dominant pathway uses plant‑derived or waste lipids (HEFA), with other methods using agricultural residues via gasification/Fischer–Tropsch or alcohol‑to‑jet routes. Certified blends up to 50% are common today. Typical life‑cycle cuts range from about 50–80% versus conventional jet fuel, depending on feedstock and process.
• Biogas/Biomethane (RNG): Produced by anaerobic digestion of organic matter such as crop residues and energy crops, then upgraded to pipeline-quality biomethane for use in CNG/LNG vehicles or for heat/power. Life‑cycle emissions can be very low; when paired with methane capture from waste streams, net emissions can approach zero.
• Advanced and cellulosic fuels: Includes cellulosic ethanol, Fischer–Tropsch diesel and jet from lignocellulosic feedstocks, and fast‑pyrolysis oils co‑processed in refineries. These target non‑food biomass and aim for deeper decarbonization with lower land‑use pressure.

Together, these fuels serve different niches across transport and energy. “Drop‑in” options like renewable diesel and some SAF can directly substitute for fossil fuels, while ethanol and biodiesel typically use specified blends.

Feedstocks and Land Use

Feedstock choice largely determines environmental performance, cost, and scalability. Here are the main categories used for plant-based fuels and why they matter.

• Sugar and starch crops: Corn and sugarcane dominate ethanol today; sugarcane is highly efficient in tropical regions, while corn’s impacts vary with farming practices and co-product credits.
• Oil crops: Soybean, rapeseed/canola, sunflower, camelina, and palm provide oils for biodiesel and renewable diesel; waste cooking oil is prized for its lower carbon intensity.
• Lignocellulosic residues: Corn stover, wheat straw, rice husks, and forestry residues offer low‑cost carbon without expanding cropland, but require advanced processing.
• Woody biomass and energy crops: Short‑rotation coppice, miscanthus, and switchgrass can be grown on marginal land, improving soil carbon if managed well.
• Algae and novel crops: While not plants in the strict botanical sense, algae are photosynthetic and researched for high‑oil yields; commercial scale remains limited.

Prioritizing residues, waste oils, and non‑food energy crops helps avoid land‑use change and food‑fuel conflicts, a key driver of sustainability outcomes.

How Plant-Based Fuels Are Made

Production technologies convert plant matter into energy-dense fuels compatible with today’s engines and infrastructure. The core pathways include the following steps.

1. Fermentation to ethanol: Sugars from cane or corn are fermented by yeast; cellulosic ethanol adds pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis to unlock sugars from biomass.
2. Transesterification to biodiesel (FAME): Plant oils react with an alcohol (usually methanol) and a catalyst to form biodiesel and glycerin.
3. Hydrotreating to renewable diesel/SAF (HVO/HEFA): Plant or waste oils are deoxygenated and isomerized in a refinery-like unit to produce drop‑in fuels.
4. Gasification and Fischer–Tropsch: Biomass is converted to syngas and then synthesized into diesel or jet fuel; high capital costs but strong decarbonization potential.
5. Anaerobic digestion to biogas: Microbes break down organic matter without oxygen, producing methane and CO2; upgrading removes CO2 to make biomethane.
6. Pyrolysis and co‑processing: Rapid heating of biomass creates pyrolysis oil that can be co‑processed in petroleum refineries to make drop‑in fuels.

Each pathway trades off feedstock flexibility, capital cost, fuel quality, and carbon intensity. Drop‑in pathways command premiums for seamless use in existing engines and pipelines.

Benefits of Plant-Based Fuels

When produced and sourced responsibly, plant-based fuels offer a set of advantages relevant to climate, air quality, and energy security.

• Lower life‑cycle emissions: Many pathways deliver 20–80% GHG cuts versus petroleum; the best performers use waste oils, residues, and advanced cellulosic routes.
• Immediate compatibility: Ethanol, biodiesel, renewable diesel, and SAF can use current vehicles, aircraft, and fueling infrastructure at approved blends.
• Domestic and diversified supply: Local feedstocks reduce oil import dependence and can add value to agricultural residues and forestry byproducts.
• Co‑benefits: Potential reductions in particulate and sulfur emissions; opportunities for rural development and revenue from waste streams.

These advantages are most compelling in hard-to-electrify segments (long‑haul trucking, aviation, marine) and in regions with abundant sustainable feedstocks.

Challenges and Risks

Not all plant-based fuels guarantee climate benefits. Outcomes hinge on land use, farming inputs, and the cleanliness of heat and power used in production.

• Land‑use change and food security: Converting forests or grasslands to crops can erase GHG benefits and harm biodiversity; competition with food crops raises prices and social concerns.
• Variable carbon intensity: Corn ethanol and some crop‑based biodiesels show wide ranges in life‑cycle emissions depending on fertilizer use, soil carbon, and co‑product accounting.
• Air pollutant trade‑offs: Biodiesel blends can increase NOx in some engines; fuel quality and aftertreatment strategies matter.
• Feedstock limits: Waste oils and residues are finite; scaling SAF and renewable diesel will require advanced pathways and new non‑food feedstocks.
• Cost and policy dependency: Many projects rely on credits and mandates (e.g., RFS, LCFS, EU RED); policy shifts affect investment.

Robust sustainability criteria, certification, and continuous improvement in agricultural practices are essential to ensure real, durable climate gains.

Climate Impact and Real‑World Performance

Plant-based fuels are evaluated with life‑cycle assessment, counting emissions from cultivation, transport, processing, distribution, and combustion. Tailpipe CO2 still occurs when the fuel burns, but the biogenic carbon was recently captured by plants; the net impact depends on the entire supply chain. Policies such as the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS), California‑style Low Carbon Fuel Standards (LCFS), the EU Renewable Energy Directive (RED II/III), and aviation frameworks like ICAO’s CORSIA set carbon‑intensity thresholds and sustainability rules. Generally, waste‑based and residue‑based fuels earn the lowest carbon intensities, while crop‑based routes vary widely and face stricter scrutiny for indirect land‑use change. In practice, modern engines handle approved blends reliably; drop‑in fuels like renewable diesel and some SAF pathways match or exceed fossil performance on energy density, cold‑flow, and storage.

Where You’ll See Plant-Based Fuels Today

Deployment varies by region and sector, reflecting feedstock availability, infrastructure, and policy incentives. The examples below highlight typical uses.

• Road transport: E10 is standard in many countries; E15 is expanding in the U.S.; Brazil uses about E27 gasoline and supports E100 in flex‑fuel cars. Diesel markets commonly use B7 in the EU and B20 in some North American fleets; renewable diesel use is growing rapidly in California and parts of Europe.
• Aviation: SAF volumes remain a small fraction of jet fuel but are increasing; major airlines are signing offtake agreements, with HEFA‑based SAF leading near‑term supply.
• Trucks and buses: Renewable diesel (HVO) and biodiesel blends are used by municipal fleets and logistics companies seeking immediate GHG cuts without new vehicles.
• Gas networks and fleets: Upgraded biomethane is injected into natural gas grids and used in CNG/LNG trucks and buses across parts of Europe and North America.
• Heat and power: Biogas and biomass are used for industrial heat and combined heat‑and‑power; HVO is entering off‑grid heating markets.

Overall market share is highest in road fuels; SAF is scaling from a low base, with policy-driven growth planned over the next decade.

Key Policies and Certifications

Regulatory frameworks drive demand, set sustainability floors, and reward lower carbon intensity. The items below summarize major programs and certifications.

• U.S. RFS: Sets volumetric and category targets; generates tradable RIN credits; distinguishes advanced and cellulosic fuels.
• Low Carbon Fuel Standards: California and other jurisdictions set declining carbon‑intensity benchmarks, awarding credits per unit of GHG reduction.
• EU Renewable Energy Directive (RED II/III): Establishes sustainability criteria, GHG savings thresholds, and limits on high‑ILUC‑risk feedstocks; ReFuelEU Aviation mandates rising SAF shares.
• ICAO CORSIA: An international framework for monitoring, reporting, and offsetting aviation emissions, with approved SAF pathways earning emissions reductions.
• Certifications: ISCC and RSB verify sustainable feedstocks and traceability; sector‑specific schemes (e.g., RSPO for palm) address deforestation risks.

Together, these rules aim to align market growth with credible climate benefits and land‑use safeguards, favoring waste‑ and residue‑based fuels and advanced technologies.

How It Compares to Electrification and E‑Fuels

Battery-electric vehicles are far more energy‑efficient for light‑duty transport and increasingly for urban buses and delivery fleets. Plant-based fuels are most valuable where batteries or direct electrification are hard—long‑haul trucking in cold climates, aviation, and some marine routes. Synthetic e‑fuels made from green hydrogen and captured CO2 can decarbonize similar sectors but remain costlier and power‑intensive; unlike plant‑based fuels, they’re not constrained by biomass but require abundant clean electricity.

Practical Tips for Consumers and Fleet Managers

If you’re considering plant-based fuels, the following pointers help ensure compatibility, performance, and real emissions benefits.

• Check compatibility: Confirm approved ethanol or biodiesel blends for your vehicle; most gasoline cars handle E10, newer ones may allow E15; diesels often accept B5–B20.
• Prefer drop‑in when possible: Renewable diesel (HVO) can fully replace fossil diesel without modifications and performs well in cold weather.
• Buy certified fuel: Ask suppliers for ISCC or RSB certification and documented carbon intensity; prioritize waste‑ and residue‑based feedstocks.
• Mind cold‑flow and storage: Higher biodiesel blends can gel; use seasonally appropriate blends and follow OEM guidance.
• Track incentives: LCFS credits, RINs, and tax credits can materially improve total cost of ownership for fleets.

Applying these steps helps capture climate benefits while maintaining reliability and controlling costs.

Outlook

Near‑term growth is strongest in renewable diesel and HEFA‑based SAF, constrained by limited waste lipids. The next wave depends on scaling residues and cellulosic pathways—alcohol‑to‑jet, gasification/Fischer–Tropsch, and pyrolysis co‑processing—alongside improved agricultural practices that cut fertilizer emissions and build soil carbon. Expect stricter sustainability criteria, more granular carbon accounting, and continued competition and complementarity with electrification and emerging e‑fuels.

Summary

Plant-based fuel is energy derived from recently grown biomass, used to displace petroleum in transport and heating. Main types include ethanol, biodiesel, renewable diesel, SAF, and biomethane. When sourced from waste oils, residues, and well‑managed energy crops—and produced with efficient, low‑carbon processes—these fuels can deliver substantial life‑cycle emission cuts while using existing engines and infrastructure. Their true impact depends on land use, feedstock choices, and policy safeguards, positioning them as a targeted tool alongside electrification in the broader clean‑energy transition.

What will replace gasoline?

Gasoline alternatives include biofuels like biodiesel and ethanol, gaseous fuels such as hydrogen, natural gas, and propane, and electricity. These fuels power specialized vehicles like flex-fuel cars, fuel cell electric vehicles, natural gas trucks, and battery-electric vehicles. Other options are renewable diesel and synthetic fuels, which are either derived from organic matter or created using hydrogen and captured carbon, respectively, to be carbon-neutral.
 
Biofuels

• Biodiesel: Made from vegetable oils and animal fats, it can be used in diesel engines with little to no modification. 
• Ethanol: Produced from plants, it can be used as a blend with gasoline in flex-fuel vehicles. 
• Renewable Diesel: A biomass-derived fuel suitable for diesel engines. 

Gaseous Fuels

• Hydrogen: Powers fuel cell vehicles, which are highly efficient and emit only water. 
• Natural Gas: Available as compressed natural gas (CNG) and can be produced from organic waste as renewable natural gas. 
• Propane: Also known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), it is a clean-burning fossil fuel and can also be produced from renewable sources. 

Electricity 

• Electric Vehicles: Powered by electricity stored in batteries, offering a zero-tailpipe-emission solution.

Other Alternatives

• Synthetic Fuels: Opens in new tabThese fuels are made by combining carbon captured from the air with hydrogen (itself sourced from water). While the combustion of these fuels releases CO2, it is theoretically carbon-neutral because the CO2 was captured from the atmosphere. 
• Advanced Diesel: Opens in new tabWhile not a complete alternative to gasoline, this option can achieve emission levels comparable to low-emission gasoline engines and offers better fuel economy, according to the Environmental & Energy Study Institute. 

Can normal cars run on biodiesel?

Biodiesel and conventional diesel vehicles are one and the same. Although light-, medium-, and heavy-duty diesel vehicles are not alternative fuel vehicles, almost all are capable of running on biodiesel blends. The most common biodiesel blend is B20, which ranges from 6% to 20% biodiesel blended with petroleum diesel.

What is a big downside to bio fuels?

Biofuel production and use has drawbacks as well, including land and water resource requirements, air and ground water pollution. Depending on the feedstock and production process, biofuels can emit even more GHGs than some fossil fuels on an energy -equivalent basis.

What is plant-based fuel called?

Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels, called “biofuels,” to help meet transportation fuel needs. The two most common types of biofuels in use today are ethanol and biodiesel, both of which represent the first generation of biofuel technology.